Identification of natural killer markers associated with fatal outcome in COVID-19 patients.

Introduction: Increasing evidence has shown that coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) severity is driven by a dysregulated immunological response. Previous studies have demonstrated that natural killer (NK) cell dysfunction underpins severe illness in COVID-19 patients, but have lacked an in-depth analysis of NK cell markers as a driver of death in the most critically ill patients. Methods: We enrolled 50 non-vaccinated hospitalized patients infected with the initial virus or the alpha variant of SARS-CoV-2 with moderate or severe illness, to evaluate phenotypic and functional features of NK cells. Results: Here, we show that, consistent with previous studies, evolution NK cells from COVID-19 patients are more activated, with the decreased activation of natural cytotoxicity receptors and impaired cytotoxicity and IFN-γ production, in association with disease regardless of the SARS-CoV-2 strain. Fatality was observed in 6 of 17 patients with severe disease; NK cells from all of these patients displayed a peculiar phenotype of an activated memory-like phenotype associated with massive TNF-α production. Discussion: These data suggest that fatal COVID-19 infection is driven by an uncoordinated inflammatory response in part mediated by a specific subset of activated NK cells.

Intestinal Candida albicans overgrowth in IgA deficiency.

BACKGROUND: Secretory IgA interacts with commensal bacteria, but its impact on human mycobiota ecology has not been widely explored. In particular, whether human IgA-deficiency is associated with gut fungal dysbiosis remains unknown. OBJECTIVES: Our goal was to study the impact of IgA on gut mycobiota ecology. METHODS: The Fungi-Flow method was used to characterize fecal, systemic, and maternal IgA, IgM, and IgG responses against 14 representative fungal strains (yeast/spores or hyphae forms) in healthy donors (HDs) (n = 34, 31, and 20, respectively) and to also compare gut mycobiota opsonization by secretory antibodies in HDs (n = 28) and patients with selective IgA deficiency (SIgAd) (n = 12). Stool mycobiota composition was determined by internal transcribed spacer gene sequencing in HDs (n = 23) and patients with SIgAd (n = 17). Circulating CD4+ T-cell cytokine secretion profiles were determined by intracellular staining. The impact of secretory IgA, purified from breast milk (n = 9), on Candidaalbicans growth and intestinal Caco-2 cell invasion was tested in vitro. RESULTS: Homeostatic IgA binds commensal fungi with a body fluid-selective pattern of recognition. In patients with SIgAd, fungal gut ecology is preserved by compensatory IgM binding to commensal fungi. Gut Calbicans overgrowth nevertheless occurs in this condition but only in clinically symptomatic patients with decreased TH17/TH22 T-cell responses. Indeed, secretory IgA can reduce in vitro budding and invasion of intestinal cells by Calbicans and therefore exert control on this pathobiont. CONCLUSION: IgA has a selective impact on Calbicans ecology to preserve fungal-host mutualism.

Phenotypic Heterogeneity of Fulminant COVID-19--Related Myocarditis in Adults.

BACKGROUND: Adults who have been infected with SARS-CoV-2 can develop a multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS-A), including fulminant myocarditis. Yet, several patients fail to meet MIS-A criteria, suggesting the existence of distinct phenotypes in fulminant COVID-19-related myocarditis. OBJECTIVES: This study sought to compare the characteristics and clinical outcome between patients with fulminant COVID-19-related myocarditis fulfilling MIS-A criteria (MIS-A+) or not (MIS-A-). METHODS: A monocentric retrospective analysis of consecutive fulminant COVID-19-related myocarditis in a 26-bed intensive care unit (ICU). RESULTS: Between March 2020 and June 2021, 38 patients required ICU admission (male 66%; mean age 32 ± 15 years) for suspected fulminant COVID-19-related myocarditis. In-ICU treatment for organ failure included dobutamine 79%, norepinephrine 60%, mechanical ventilation 50%, venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation 42%, and renal replacement therapy 29%. In-hospital mortality was 13%. Twenty-five patients (66%) met the MIS-A criteria. MIS-A- patients compared with MIS-A+ patients were characterized by a shorter delay between COVID-19 symptoms onset and myocarditis, a lower left ventricular ejection fraction, and a higher rate of in-ICU organ failure, and were more likely to require mechanical circulatory support with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (92% vs 16%; P < 0.0001). In-hospital mortality was higher in MIS-A- patients (31% vs 4%). MIS-A+ had higher circulating levels of interleukin (IL)-22, IL-17, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), whereas MIS-A- had higher interferon-α2 (IFN-α2) and IL-8 levels. RNA polymerase III autoantibodies were present in 7 of 13 MIS-A- patients (54%) but in none of the MIS-A+ patients. CONCLUSION: MIS-A+ and MIS-A- fulminant COVID-19-related myocarditis patients have 2 distinct phenotypes with different clinical presentations, prognosis, and immunological profiles. Differentiating these 2 phenotypes is relevant for patients' management and further understanding of their pathophysiology.

Identification of bronchoalveolar and blood immune-inflammatory biomarker signature associated with poor 28-day outcome in critically ill COVID-19 patients.

The local immune-inflammatory response elicited by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is still poorly described, as well as the extent to which its characteristics may be associated with the outcome of critical Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In this prospective monocenter study, all consecutive COVID-19 critically ill patients admitted from February to December 2020 and explored by fiberoptic bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) were included. Biological assays, including digital ELISA cytokine profiling and targeted eicosanoid metabolomic analysis, were performed on paired blood and BAL fluid (BALF). Clinical outcome was assessed through the World Health Organization 10-point Clinical Progression Scale (WHO-CPS) at the 28th day (D28) following the admission to intensive care unit. A D28-WHO-CPS value higher than 5 defined a poor outcome. Seventy-six patients were included, 45 (59%) had a poor day-28 outcome. As compared to their counterparts, patients with D28-WHO-CPS > 5 exhibited a neutrophil-predominant bronchoalveolar phenotype, with a higher BALF neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio, a blunted local type I interferon response, a decompartimentalized immune-inflammatory response illustrated by lower BALF/blood ratio of concentrations of IL-6 (1.68 [0.30-4.41] vs. 9.53 [2.56-19.1]; p = 0.001), IL-10, IL-5, IL-22 and IFN-γ, and a biological profile of vascular endothelial injury illustrated by a higher blood concentration of VEGF and higher blood and/or BALF concentrations of several vasoactive eicosanoids. In critically ill COVID-19 patients, we identified bronchoalveolar and blood immune-inflammatory biomarker signature associated with poor 28-day outcome.

Memory CD4+ T-Cell Lymphocytic Angiopathy in Fatal Forms of COVID-19 Pulmonary Infection.

The immunopathological pulmonary mechanisms leading to Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)-related death in adults remain poorly understood. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and peripheral blood sampling were performed in 74 steroid and non-steroid-treated intensive care unit (ICU) patients (23-75 years; 44 survivors). Peripheral effector SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells were detected in 34/58 cases, mainly directed against the S1 portion of the spike protein. The BAL lymphocytosis consisted of T cells, while the mean CD4/CD8 ratio was 1.80 in non-steroid- treated patients and 1.14 in steroid-treated patients. Moreover, strong BAL SARS-CoV-2 specific T-cell responses were detected in 4/4 surviving and 3/3 non-surviving patients. Serum IFN-γ and IL-6 levels were decreased in steroid-treated patients when compared to non-steroid treated patients. In the lung samples from 3 (1 non-ICU and 2 ICU) additional deceased cases, a lymphocytic memory CD4 T-cell angiopathy colocalizing with SARS-CoV-2 was also observed. Taken together, these data show that disease severity occurs despite strong antiviral CD4 T cell-specific responses migrating to the lung, which could suggest a pathogenic role for perivascular memory CD4 T cells upon fatal COVID-19 pneumonia.

Preclinical Validation of Tumor-Penetrating and Interfering Peptides against Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is the most common form of leukemia in adults. The disease is characterized by the accumulation of tumoral B cells resulting from a defect of apoptosis. We have in vitro and in vivo preclinically validated a tumor-penetrating peptide (named TT1) coupled to an interfering peptide (IP) that dissociates the interaction between the serine/threonine protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) from its physiological inhibitor, the oncoprotein SET. This TT1-IP peptide has an antitumoral effect on CLL, as shown by the increased survival of mice bearing xenograft models of CLL, compared to control mice. The peptide did not show toxicity, as indicated by the mouse body weight and the biochemical parameters, such as renal and hepatic enzymes. In addition, the peptide-induced apoptosis in vitro of primary tumoral B cells isolated from CLL patients but not of those isolated from healthy patients. Finally, the peptide had approximately 5 h half-life in human serum and showed pharmacokinetic parameters compatible with clinical development as a therapeutic peptide against CLL.

Pre-COVID-19 Immunity to Common Cold Human Coronaviruses Induces a Recall-Type IgG Response to SARS-CoV-2 Antigens Without Cross-Neutralisation.

The capacity of pre-existing immunity to human common coronaviruses (HCoV) to cross-protect against de novo COVID-19is yet unknown. In this work, we studied the sera of 175 COVID-19 patients, 76 healthy donors and 3 intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) batches. We found that most COVID-19 patients developed anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies before IgM. Moreover, the capacity of their IgGs to react to beta-HCoV, was present in the early sera of most patients before the appearance of anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG. This implied that a recall-type antibody response was generated. In comparison, the patients that mounted an anti-SARS-COV2 IgM response, prior to IgG responses had lower titres of anti-beta-HCoV IgG antibodies. This indicated that pre-existing immunity to beta-HCoV was conducive to the generation of memory type responses to SARS-COV-2. Finally, we also found that pre-COVID-19-era sera and IVIG cross-reacted with SARS-CoV-2 antigens without neutralising SARS-CoV-2 infectivity in vitro. Put together, these results indicate that whilst pre-existing immunity to HCoV is responsible for recall-type IgG responses to SARS-CoV-2, it does not lead to cross-protection against COVID-19.

Anti-PD-1 immune-related adverse events are associated with high therapeutic antibody fixation on T cells.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) widely improved the treatment of solid and hematologic malignancies. Yet, a remarkable proportion of patients receiving ICI develop immune related adverse events (irAEs) which are difficult to define as treatment-related. This underlines the need to develop a biomarker to guide irAE diagnosis. We developed a novel flow cytometry assay combining measurement of anti-PD-1 (programmed cell death protein-1) occupancy and evaluation of remaining PD-1 receptor availability with anti-IgG4 PE and anti-PD-1 BV421. We prospectively collected blood and biological fluids samples from patients treated by IgG4 anti-PD-1 therapy (nivolumab or pembrolizumab), with (n=18) or without (n=12) current irAE. We analyzed PD-1+ and IgG4+ staining pattern and MFI values of these parameters on CD4 and CD8 T cells, and IgG4+/PD-1+ MFI ratios are calculated. A higher mean fluorescence intensity IgG4+/PD-1+ ratio was measured on peripheral CD4+ T cells of irAE cases, when compared to controls (p=0.003). ICI-related toxicity is therefore associated with increased therapeutic antibody occupancy of PD-1 receptors on CD4+ T cells. Furthermore, in one case of ICI-related pneumonitis, binding of therapeutic antibody was stronger on lung CD4+ T cell than in blood. In another case of ICI-related encephalitis, the PD-1 receptor occupancy was total on CSF CD4 T cells, but only partial on peripherical CD4 T cells. Our results suggest that flow cytometry monitoring of ICI occupancy can be used in patients treated with monoclonal ICI to guide irAE diagnosis.

LOX-1-Expressing Immature Neutrophils Identify Critically-Ill COVID-19 Patients at Risk of Thrombotic Complications.

Background: Lymphopenia and the neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio may have prognostic value in COVID-19 severity. Objective: We investigated neutrophil subsets and functions in blood and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) of COVID-19 patients on the basis of patients' clinical characteristics. Methods: We used a multiparametric cytometry profiling based to mature and immature neutrophil markers in 146 critical or severe COVID-19 patients. Results: The Discovery study (38 patients, first pandemic wave) showed that 80% of Intensive Care Unit (ICU) patients develop strong myelemia with CD10-CD64+ immature neutrophils (ImNs). Cellular profiling revealed three distinct neutrophil subsets expressing either the lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 (LOX-1), the interleukin-3 receptor alpha (CD123), or programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) overrepresented in ICU patients compared to non-ICU patients. The proportion of LOX-1- or CD123-expressing ImNs is positively correlated with clinical severity, cytokine storm (IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, TNFα), acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and thrombosis. BALs of patients with ARDS were highly enriched in LOX-1-expressing ImN subsets and in antimicrobial neutrophil factors. A validation study (118 patients, second pandemic wave) confirmed and strengthened the association of the proportion of ImN subsets with disease severity, invasive ventilation, and death. Only high proportions of LOX-1-expressing ImNs remained strongly associated with a high risk of severe thrombosis independently of the plasma antimicrobial neutrophil factors, suggesting an independent association of ImN markers with their functions. Conclusion: LOX-1-expressing ImNs may help identifying COVID-19 patients at high risk of severity and thrombosis complications.

CD8+PD-L1+CXCR3+ polyfunctional T cell abundances are associated with survival in critical SARS-CoV-2-infected patients.

The importance of the adaptive T cell response in the control and resolution of viral infection has been well established. However, the nature of T cell-mediated viral control mechanisms in life-threatening stages of COVID-19 has yet to be determined. The aim of the present study was to determine the function and phenotype of T cell populations associated with survival or death of patients with COVID-19 in intensive care as a result of phenotypic and functional profiling by mass cytometry. Increased frequencies of circulating, polyfunctional CD4+CXCR5+HLA-DR+ stem cell memory T cells (Tscms) and decreased proportions of granzyme B-expressing and perforin-expressing effector memory T cells were detected in recovered and deceased patients, respectively. The higher abundance of polyfunctional PD-L1+CXCR3+CD8+ effector T cells (Teffs), CXCR5+HLA-DR+ Tscms, and anti-nucleocapsid (anti-NC) cytokine-producing T cells permitted us to differentiate between recovered and deceased patients. The results from a principal component analysis show an imbalance in the T cell compartment that allowed for the separation of recovered and deceased patients. The paucity of circulating PD-L1+CXCR3+CD8+ Teffs and NC-specific CD8+ T cells accurately forecasts fatal disease outcome. This study provides insight into the nature of the T cell populations involved in the control of COVID-19 and therefore might impact T cell-based vaccine designs for this infectious disease.

Perturbed Microbiota/Immune Homeostasis in Multiple Sclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: Based on animal models and human studies, there is now strong suspicion that host/microbiota mutualism in the context of gut microbial dysbiosis could influence immunity and multiple sclerosis (MS) evolution. Our goal was to seek evidence of deregulated microbiota-induced systemic immune responses in patients with MS. METHODS: We investigated gut and systemic commensal-specific antibody responses in healthy controls (n = 32), patients with relapsing-remitting MS (n = 30), and individuals with clinically isolated syndromes (CISs) (n = 15). Gut microbiota composition and diversity were compared between controls and patients by analysis of 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) sequencing. Autologous microbiota and cultivable bacterial strains were used in bacterial flow cytometry assays to quantify autologous serum IgG and secretory IgA responses to microbiota. IgG-bound bacteria were sorted by flow cytometry and identified using 16S rRNA sequencing. RESULTS: We show that commensal-specific gut IgA responses are drastically reduced in patients with severe MS, disease severity being correlated with the IgA-coated fecal microbiota fraction (r = -0.647, p < 0.0001). At the same time, IgA-unbound bacteria elicit qualitatively broad and quantitatively increased serum IgG responses in patients with MS and CIS compared with controls (4.1% and 2.5% vs 1.9%, respectively, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Gut and systemic microbiota/immune homeostasis are perturbed in MS. Our results argue that defective IgA responses in MS are linked to a breakdown of systemic tolerance to gut microbiota leading to an enhanced triggering of systemic IgG immunity against gut commensals occurring early in MS.

Distinct cytokine profiles associated with COVID-19 severity and mortality.

BACKGROUND: Markedly elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines and defective type-I interferon responses were reported in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine whether particular cytokine profiles are associated with COVID-19 severity and mortality. METHODS: Cytokine concentrations and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 antigen were measured at hospital admission in serum of symptomatic patients with COVID-19 (N = 115), classified at hospitalization into 3 respiratory severity groups: no need for mechanical ventilatory support (No-MVS), intermediate severity requiring mechanical ventilatory support (MVS), and critical severity requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Principal-component analysis was used to characterize cytokine profiles associated with severity and mortality. The results were thereafter confirmed in an independent validation cohort (N = 86). RESULTS: At time of hospitalization, ECMO patients presented a dominant proinflammatory response with elevated levels of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10. In contrast, an elevated type-I interferon response involving IFN-α and IFN-ß was characteristic of No-MVS patients, whereas MVS patients exhibited both profiles. Mortality at 1 month was associated with higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines in ECMO patients, higher levels of type-I interferons in No-MVS patients, and their combination in MVS patients, resulting in a combined mortality prediction accuracy of 88.5% (risk ratio, 24.3; P < .0001). Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 antigen levels correlated with type-I interferon levels and were associated with mortality, but not with proinflammatory response or severity. CONCLUSIONS: Distinct cytokine profiles are observed in association with COVID-19 severity and are differentially predictive of mortality according to oxygen support modalities. These results warrant personalized treatment of COVID-19 patients based on cytokine profiling.

In-depth proteomic analysis of Plasmodium berghei sporozoites using trapped ion mobility spectrometry with parallel accumulation-serial fragmentation.

Sporozoites of the malaria parasite Plasmodium are transmitted by mosquitoes and infect the liver for an initial and obligatory round of replication, before exponential multiplication in the blood and onset of the disease. Sporozoites and liver stages provide attractive targets for malaria vaccines and prophylactic drugs. In this context, defining the parasite proteome is important to explore the parasite biology and to identify potential targets for antimalarial strategies. Previous studies have determined the total proteome of sporozoites from the two main human malaria parasites, P. falciparum and P. vivax, as well as P. yoelii, which infects rodents. Another murine malaria parasite, P. berghei, is widely used to investigate the parasite biology. However, a deep view of the proteome of P. berghei sporozoites is still missing. To fill this gap, we took advantage of the highly sensitive timsTOF PRO mass spectrometer, combined with three alternative methods for sporozoite purification, to identify the proteome of P. berghei sporozoites using low numbers of parasites. This study provides a reference proteome for P. berghei sporozoites, identifying a core set of proteins expressed across species, and illustrates how the unprecedented sensitivity of the timsTOF PRO system enables deep proteomic analysis from limited sample amounts.

IgA dominates the early neutralizing antibody response to SARS-CoV-2.

Humoral immune responses are typically characterized by primary IgM antibody responses followed by secondary antibody responses associated with immune memory and composed of IgG, IgA, and IgE. Here, we measured acute humoral responses to SARS-CoV-2, including the frequency of antibody-secreting cells and the presence of SARS-CoV-2-specific neutralizing antibodies in the serum, saliva, and bronchoalveolar fluid of 159 patients with COVID-19. Early SARS-CoV-2-specific humoral responses were dominated by IgA antibodies. Peripheral expansion of IgA plasmablasts with mucosal homing potential was detected shortly after the onset of symptoms and peaked during the third week of the disease. The virus-specific antibody responses included IgG, IgM, and IgA, but IgA contributed to virus neutralization to a greater extent compared with IgG. Specific IgA serum concentrations decreased notably 1 month after the onset of symptoms, but neutralizing IgA remained detectable in saliva for a longer time (days 49 to 73 post-symptoms). These results represent a critical observation given the emerging information as to the types of antibodies associated with optimal protection against reinfection and whether vaccine regimens should consider targeting a potent but potentially short-lived IgA response.

Systemic anti-commensal response to fungi analyzed by flow cytometry is related to gut mycobiome ecology.

BACKGROUND: Interest for the study of gut mycobiota in relation with human health and immune homeostasis has increased in the last years. From this perspective, new tools to study the immune/fungal interface are warranted. Systemic humoral immune responses could reflect the dynamic relationships between gut mycobiota and immunity. Using a novel flow cytometry technology (Fungi-Flow) to determine immunoglobulin (Ig) responses to fungi, we studied the relationships between gut mycobiota and systemic humoral anti-commensal immunity. RESULTS: The Fungi-Flow method allows a sensitive and specific measurement of systemic IgG responses against 17 commensal and environmental fungi from the two main divisions; Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. IgG responses exhibited a high inter-individual variability. Anti-commensal IgG responses were contrasted with the relative abundance, alpha-diversity, and intra-genus richness of fungal species in gut mycobiota of twenty healthy donors. Categorization of gut mycobiota composition revealed two differentiated fungal ecosystems. Significant difference of anti-Saccharomyces systemic IgG responses were observed in healthy donors stratified according to the fungal ecosystem colonizing their gut. A positive and significant correlation was observed between the variety of IgG responses against fungal commensals and intestinal alpha-diversity. At the level of intra-genus species richness, intense IgG responses were associated with a low intra-genus richness for known pathobionts, but not commensals. CONCLUSIONS: Fungi-Flow allows an easy and reliable measure of personalized humoral responses against commensal fungi. Combining sequencing technology with our novel Fungi-Flow immunological method, we propose that there are at least two defined ecosystems in the human gut mycobiome associated with systemic humoral responses. Fungi-Flow opens new opportunities to improve our knowledge about the impact of mycobiota in humoral anti-commensal immunity and homeostasis. Video Abstract.

Identification of peptides interfering with the LRRK2/PP1 interaction.

Serine/threonine phosphatases are responsible for modulating the activities of the protein kinases implicated in the development of several pathologies. Here we identified by a PEP-scan approach a peptide of LRRK2, a Parkinson's disease associated protein, interacting with the phosphatase PP1. In order to study its biological activity, the peptide was fused via its N-terminal to an optimized cell penetrating peptide. We synthesized from the original peptide five interfering peptides and identified two (Mut3DPT-LRRK2-Short and Mut3DPT-LRRK2-Long) able to disrupt the LRRK2/PP1 interaction by competition in anti-LRRK2 immunoprecipitates. Using FITC-labelled peptides, we confirmed their internalization into cell lines as well as into primary cells obtained from healthy or ill human donors. We confirmed by ELISA test the association of Mut3DPT-LRRK2-Long peptide to purified PP1 protein. The peptides Mut3DPT-LRRK2-5 to 8 with either N or C-terminal deletions were not able to disrupt the association LRRK2/PP1 nor to associate with purified PP1 protein. The interfering sequences blocking the PP1/LRRK2 interaction were also fused to a shuttle peptide able to cross the blood brain barrier and showed that the newly generated peptides BBB-LRRK2-Short and BBB-LRRK2-Long were highly resistant to protease degradation. Furthermore, they blocked PP1/LRRK2 interaction and they penetrated into cells. Hence, these newly generated peptides can be employed as new tools in the investigation of the role of the LRRK2/PP1 interaction in normal and pathological conditions.

Human IgA binds a diverse array of commensal bacteria.

In humans, several grams of IgA are secreted every day in the intestinal lumen. While only one IgA isotype exists in mice, humans secrete IgA1 and IgA2, whose respective relations with the microbiota remain elusive. We compared the binding patterns of both polyclonal IgA subclasses to commensals and glycan arrays and determined the reactivity profile of native human monoclonal IgA antibodies. While most commensals are dually targeted by IgA1 and IgA2 in the small intestine, IgA1+IgA2+ and IgA1-IgA2+ bacteria coexist in the colon lumen, where Bacteroidetes is preferentially targeted by IgA2. We also observed that galactose-α terminated glycans are almost exclusively recognized by IgA2. Although bearing signs of affinity maturation, gut-derived IgA monoclonal antibodies are cross-reactive in the sense that they bind to multiple bacterial targets. Private anticarbohydrate-binding patterns, observed at clonal level as well, could explain these apparently opposing features of IgA, being at the same time cross-reactive and selective in its interactions with the microbiota.